Intelligence:

  1. In ancient India, the development of the inner nature or character of the student was deemed as one of the essential objects of Education.
    1. Because Mere intellectual development without the development of character will defeat the very ends of studentship.
  2. Set-I (Theory of Intelligence) Set-II (Special emphasis given) – In order
    1. Vernon’s hierarchical structure theory – General, broad and specific factors linked with ability
    2. Guilford’s structure of intellect theory – Abilities can be explained through basic mental processes, specific contents and products
    3. Daniel Goleman’s emotional intelligence theory – Associative thinking and self-motivation.
    4. Gardner’s multiple and emotional intelligence theory – Abilities can be nurtured and developed
  3. The correct sequence of a few theories of intelligence
    1. Spearman’s two factor theory,
    2. Burt’s group factor theory,
    3. Thurstone’s Multiple factor theory.
    1. Guilford’s structure of intellect,
    2. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence
    3. Daniel Goleman’s theory of Emotional intelligence
    4. Zohar and Marshall’s theory of spiritual intelligence.
  4. Kinds of Intelligence and Description
    1. Cognitive Intelligence – The optimum point in one’s mental development is reached during adulthood – Serial Thinking
    2. Emotional Intelligence – Empathy forms an important component of intelligence – Associative Thinking
    3. Cultural Intelligence -Trans – Situational Thinking
    4. Spiritual Intelligence – Unitive Thinking.

Thurstone:

  1. Multiple Factor Theory – Thurstone, intelligence is oligarchic in  nature.
  2. Intelligent  behavior  does  not  arise  from  a  general factor  instead  emerges  from different primary abilities. – Multiple Factor Theory
  3. Thurstone criticised Spearman’s ‘G’ mainly on the grounds
    1. Human intelligence can not be considered as a single unitary trait.
    2. Intelligent  behaviour  does  not  arise  from  a  general factor  instead  emerges  from different primary abilities.
  4. Louis.L.Thurstone:- Primary Mental abilities
    1. Verbal Comprehension
    2. Reasoning
    3. Perceptual speed
    4. Numerical ability
    5. Word fluency
    6. Associative memory
    7. Spatial Visualisation.

Guilford:

  1. Guilford initially started his work on SOI extending Thurstone’s theory of primary abilities but later on diverged on the grounds
    1. Like Thurstone’s, Guilford found second-order and higher-order factors.
    2. Thurston’s factor analysis was mainly oriented to get simple structure
    3. Obtained factors were not primary (independent) rather related to each other
    4. It was found difficult to name the abilities/factors found in data.
  2. Guilford’s structure of intellect theory – Abilities can be explained through basic mental processes, specific contents and products.
  3. In guilford’s structure of intellect, obtained abilities have been named in the following sequence
    1. Operation, content and Products
  4. As per Guilford’s SOI model, intelligence can be taken as superset of creativity.
    1. Reason (R) : Creativity involves divergent production that is just one of five operations of intellect.
    2. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

Howard Gardner:

  1. In developing seven ‘multiple intelligence’. Gardner made some important observations.
    1. Intelligence is not entirely genetic.
    2. Intelligence is not fixed at birth.
    3. Intelligence can be nurtured and grown.
      1. So, intelligence is a capacity with component processes and should not be confused with a learning or cognitive style.
        1. Cognition refers to the mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information.
  2. Gardner’s multiple and emotional intelligence theory – Abilities can be nurtured and developed
  3. In developing seven ‘multiple intelligence’. Gardner made some important observations.
    1. Intelligence is not entirely genetic.Intelligence is not fixed at birth.
    2. Intelligence can be nurtured and grown.
  4. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence  is considered to be the fore-runner to Emotional Intelligence

Sternberg:

  1. Sternberg’s Triarchic theory identifies _______ types of components;_____ are used to plan, control and monitor in problem solving.
    1. Three, Meta components
  2. In sternberg’s triarchic theory, the type of intelligence that involves the ability to think critically and analytically is called componential intelligence
    1. By Component analysis – Context, components and experiential.
  3. Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of intelligence:
    1. Analytical
    2. Creative
    3. Practical
  4. In Sternberg’s Triarchic theory of Intelligence, the experiential sub theory refers to how experience interacts with intelligence in terms of the individual’s internal world, and the external world.
  5. Coping Theory – Intelligence  can be taught and classroom is the  logical place to teach.
  6. The most important goal in learning is intelligent behavior confronting novel tasks and situations of learning to deal with them.
  7. According to Sternberg’s theory the following is not the component of tacit knowledge
    1. managing self
    2. managing others
    3. managing career
    4. managing imaginations

Learning theories:

  1. The correct sequence in the development of learning theories
    1. Thorndike’s Connectionism.
    1. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning.
    2. Skinners Operant Conditioning,
    3. Tolman’s Sign Gestalt,
    4. Cognitivist Theory and
    5. Constructivist theory.

Behaviouristic Theory:

Thorndike:

  1. The laws of learning given by Thorndike’s connectionism
    1. law of readiness – a series of stimuli
    2. Law of effect – response to a situation
    3. Law of exercise – To strengthen the response by practice
  2. Cause of connection-ism or Associated shifting means Learning is associated with stimuli and response.
  3. laws/principles of learning of Thorndike which anticipated the classical conditioning paradigm of Pavlov was Principle of associative shifting.
  4. Such associations or habits become strengthened or weakened by it’s frequency of S-R pairings.
  5. Thorndike’s theory refers to trial and error theory the most effective reinforcement theory of learning for stable purpose is variable ratio reinforcement.
  6. Thorndike’s law of effect in learning anticipated which of the following paradigm – Pavlovian conditioning
  7. Transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new learning situations.
  8. It only supports deductive reasoning giving emphasis only on specific sets of conclusion related to subject.

Pavlov’s classical conditioning:

  1. In Pavlovian conditioning, paradigm as developed originally Number of CS-UCS pairing was used as independent variable
    1. Unconditioned Stimulus – Food > Unconditioned response – Salivate
    2. conditioned stimulus – Bell when did not evoke response of salivation from dog – it becomes neutral stimulus.
  2. In Pavlovian conditioning paradigm,when presentation of un-conditioned stimulus precedes that of neutral stimulus,the  procedure is called Backward conditioning.
  3. the critical difference between Pavlovian and Skinnerian conditioning
    1. Elicited Vs Emitted class of responses.
    2. Reinforcement comes before the response in one while in the other reinforcement follows the response.
    3. In one the no. of pairings of two stimuli is critical while in the other response reinforcement contingency is critical.
    4. In one the learner is passive while in the other learner is active.

Skinner’s operant conditioning:

  1. Behaviour pattern that increases in frequency when followed by a reward is known as Operant conditioning.
  2. According to Skinner, development of language in children is the result of Imitation and reinforcement.
  3. The following principles is used in shaping behaviour in Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – Principle of successive approximation by reinforcement
    1. Reinforcement theory – With a clear objecctive in mind the the experimenter shapes or moulds behaviour in desired direction.
    2. Under classroom condition, Skinner’s theory is applied as Step by step presentation of learning material, student response and immediacy of feedback = programmed instruction.
    3. Positive reinforcement – the behavior increases in frequency after the presentation of a stimulus
    4. Negative reinforcement – the behavior increases in frequency after the removal of the stimulus
    5. Punishment – painful or aversive stimulus is presented to stop the occurrence of a behavior
    6. Extinction – withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus or application of an aversive stimulus to stop the behavior.
  4. In the six basic types of learning as given by Tolman the following is similar to Skinner’s conditioned reinforcers
    1. Equivalence beliefs’ learning
  5. Tolman ‘s revision of his system represents motivational principle of Freud – Cathexis
    1. While introducing revision in his system of learning Tolman referred to Drive discrimination learning.
  1. Laws of thorndike is nearer to Skinner’s Operant Conditioning paradigm
    1. Law of effect of thorndike is nearer to Skinner’s Operant Conditioning paradigm.(Reinforcement)
  2. In the instructional design based on Skinner’s theory of reinforcement, which of the following set of activities are appropriate
    1. Step by step presentation of learning material, student response and immediacy of feedback
    2. Skinner’s operant conditioning represents programmed instruction learning. It helps in framing the  principle of successive approximation.
    3. Programmed learning with individualization shapes responses in teaching learning presentations.
  3. Optimum use of the ‘Principle of successive approximation’ has been empirically demonstrated through Programmed instructional model.
  4. In the six basic types of learning as given by Tolman in his later theoretical articles, which one is similar to Skinner ís conditioned reinforcers
    1. Equivalence beliefs learning.
  5. In the instructional design based on Skinner’s theory of reinforcement, which of the following set of activities are appropriate – Step by step presentation of learning material, student response and immediacy of feedback.
  6. The principles used in shaping behavior in Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
    1. Principle of successive approximation by reinforcement
    2. With a clear objective in mind the experimenter shapes or moulds behaviour in desired direction – Reinforcement theory.

Tolman’s sign theory:

  1. A: Tolman‘s purposive behaviourism was considered to be a major advancement in the field of psychology
    1. R: Pre-tolman behaviorism excessive emphasized S-R relations and ignored cognitive process
    2. Both A and R true and R is the  correct explanation.
  2. Tolman’s purposive behaviour
    1. 3 parts of learning that work together as gestalt are
      1. significant, sign and means-end relationship that helps in forming cognitive map.
  3. a characteristic feature of Tolman’s theory of learning
    1. Purposive Behaviour  (2)  Vicarious trial and error 3) Latent learning
  4. the basis for Tolman’s sign gestalt learning.
    1. Place learning experiment
    2. Reward expectancy
    3. Latent learning experiment
  5. The evidence on latent learning became the basis of formulating Tolman’s sign-gestalt theory model of learning.
    1. Latent learning is not translated into performance
    2. Latent learning remains dormant for a considerable length of time
    3. Reinforcement is not important for Latent learning
  6. According to gestalt learning, learning is not just the outcome of an association of a series of stimuli-responses but the perception of whole learning task.
    1. Perceptual process consists of
      1. Perceptual learning
      2. Motives and needs
      3. Perceptual cognitive styles
  7. Tolman’s sign gestalt explains transfer of learning in-terms of transposition of understanding which explains transfer of learning in-terms of generalizing the conclusion from one situation to other.
    1. So, the understanding developed by the learner transfers from one situation to other.
  8. According to Tolman, the “Individual Differences” variables which interact with independent variables to produce behaviour
    1. Age, Heredity, Previous Training and Biological conditions.
  9. Six basic types of learning as given by Tolman forming a cognitive map that correlates with goal oriented behavior
    1. Equivalence belief – In the six basic types of learning as given by Tolman it is similar to Skinner’s conditioned reinforcers.
    2. Cathexis – Tendency to associate certain objects with certain drives
      1. In Tolman’s revised system of learning, Formation of Cathexis represents borrowing from Freud.
    3. Field expectancies – action lead to outcomes
    4. Drive discrimination – Drives in accordance with outcomes.
    5. Motor patterns – Stimuli and movements 

Hull’s Need reduction theory:

  1. In clarke hull’s theory need, habit strength, incentive motivation and drive are the most  important terms to use.
  2. Hull’s postulates in drive reduction/need satisfaction are
    1. Stimulation and drive for need
    2. Habit strength for reinforcement – Independent Variable
    3. Effective reaction or excitation potential- Intervening variable.
    4. Resistance to the response made by number of reinforcements- Dependent variable
  3. General theory of Learning
    1. Student wanted to learn –Drive
    1. Student must be attentive – Stimuli and response – need
    2. Response to be made – incentive motivation
    3. Reinforcement to satisfy the need – habit strength
  4. A: Hull proposed that reaction potential is the product of habit strength and drive 
    1. It is based on hypothetico-deductive model deducting testable consequence based on postulates
    2. A and R true but not the correct explanation
  5. The interaction of sensory impulses indicates the complexity stimulation and therefore the difficulties in predicting behavior.
    1. Hull’s theory states behaviors is seldom a function of one stimuli but rather function of many stimuli.
  6. In hull’s system of hierarchy of response used to depict are
    1. If the first or second or third innate response pattern does not reduce the need another pattern will occur
    2. So, based on which habit strength reinforcement is done.
  7. In Hull’s ‘reinforcement theory’ which of the  following was postulated as intervening variable Excitation reaction Potential.
    1. Independent Variable – Drive condition, Intensity of stimulus(Habit strength).
    2. Dependent Variable – Number of non reinforced responses for extinction.

Gagne:

  1. In Gagne’s hierarchy, the assumption is that lower order learning occurs before higher order learning.
  2. By Robert M. Gagne, a list of five types of learning indicated in a hierarchical arrangement,
    1. Signal learning (S – R learning)
    2. Chain learning
    3. Concept learning by discrimination
    4. Rule learning – Principle
    5. Problem solving.
  3. Based on intellectual skills – 9 elements of Constructivist instructional design
    1. Gaining attention (reception)
    2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
    3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
    4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
    5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
    6. Eliciting performance (responding)
    7. Providing feedback (reinforcement)
    8. Assessing performance (retrieval)
    9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
Instruction

learning occurs through epistemological structure of understanding.

5 E’s of constructivism

Dick and Carey model of instruction:

Start – Instructional Goals

End – Summative evaluation

9 stages

Cognitive Theory:

Piaget:

  1. According to the theory of cognitive development given by Piaget, the teacher has an insignificant role to play in classrooms because the child is sure to develop cognitively as he goes along the sequence of development suggested by Piaget.
  2. The construction of thought processes, including remembering, problem-solving and decision making, is called as Cognitive development.
    1. Knowledge construction procedure – assimilation, accommodation and adoption based cognitive approach.
  3. According to Piaget, which one of the following pairs is essential for cognitive development of the child – Assimilation and Accommodation
  4. ‘Formal operational stage’ of cognitive development in Piaget’s view will correspond to Secondary education stage of education in India.
  5. According  to  Piaget,  in  which  stage  of  development  the child  shows  attainment  of  concept  of reversibility as a cognitive capacity – Concrete operational stage – whereby one can measure, classify, compare different objects.
  6. Set-I (Stage of cognitive development) – Set-II (Distinctive cognitive features)
    1. Sensory motor stage – Object permanence 0-2 yrs
    2. Pre-operational stage – Transductive reasoning – kinder garden and early primary level of education – 3-7 Years
    3. Concrete operational stage – Reversibility concept – Logical but depends upon concrete referent objects eg. conservation 8-11 years
    4. Formal operational stage – Hypothesis making and hypothesis testing – 12 – 15 years

Constructivist Theory:

Vygotsky:

  1. peer group based interactive and social learning approach
  2. cognitive development occurs in a sociocultural context and evolves out of the child’s social interactions
  3. According to this theorist, language plays a crucial role in the development of cognitive ability by Vygotsky
  4. the relationship between development and learning as proposed by Vygotsky – Development process lags behind the learning process
  5. According to vygotsky, zone of proximal development is the gap between what the child can do independently and with assistance.
  6. Assertion (A)  :  Scaffolding not only provides the solution of specific problems but also aids in the overall cognitive development.
    1. Reason (R)  : Zone of proximal development is the level at which a child can almost but not fully comprehend or perform a test on his own.
    2. (1)  Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
  7. Lev Vygotsky Knowledge construction procedure – peer group based interactive and social learning approach – Scaffolding
  8. A: According to vygotsky, human thinking and reasoning are products of social activity
    1. R: Every cognitive process appears first on social plane and then on psychological plane after internalization
    2. A and R correct and true explanation.
  9. Scaffolding – Temporary  support  that  parents  provide  to  a  child  to  do  a task  until  the  child  can  do  it alone
  10. Speech and language development by vygotsky
    1. primitive
    2. naive
    3. egocentric
    4. Ingrowth.

Ausubel:

  1. In Advance organizer model, the focus is on Intellectual scaffolding.
    1. Instructional Mechanism in advance of learning at a higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness.
    2. Organisers acts as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
    3. Therefore cross referencing old and new ideas across different disciplines.
  1. the following  cognitive  learning  promoters  developed  the  concept  of  meaningful learning
    1. advanced organizer, expository organiser and comparative organizers based learners approach = The focus is intellectual scaffolding
    2. The  basic  reason  why  meaningful material is learned rapidly is that it  is  related  to  previous experience of the learner.
  2. Instructional Mechanism in advance of learning at a higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness.
  3. Organisers acts as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
    1. Therefore cross referencing old and new ideas across different disciplines.
  4. Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations
    1. It clearly distinguishes from rote and discovery learning.
    2. Meaningful way of learning gives rise to long term memory.

Bruner:

  1. According to Bruner’s discovery approach, Knowledge construction procedure includes components like Activation, maintenance and direction are must for learning.
  2. Learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.
  3. Learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses and makes decisions, relying on cognitive structure.
  4. Cognitive structure(Mental models) provide meaning and organisation to experience and allows the individual to go beyond the information given.
  5. How knowledge is represented and organized through different modes of thinking – constructivist theory  in the process of Education by discovering
    1. action based – enactive
    2. Image based – Iconic
    3. Language based – Symbolic
  6. According to Bruner’s discovery approach is a must for learning with components – 
    1. activation, maintenance and direction based exploratory learning approach.
  1. Set 1 (Proponents) Set II  (Knowledge construction procedure)
    1. Jean Piaget – assimilation, accommodation and adoption based cognitive approach
    2. Lev Vygotsky – peer group based interactive and social learning approach – Scaffolding
    3. Gerome Bruner – activation(Enactive), maintenance(Iconic) and direction(Symbolic) based exploratory learning approach
    4. David Ausubel – advanced organizer, expository organiser and comparative organizers based learners approach – for meanigful learning

Instructional Design Models:

ADDIE:

A process that offers a step-by-step framework to assess training and educational material.In the ADDIE model, each step has an outcome that feeds into the subsequent step.Analysis > Design > Development > Implementation > Evaluation.

ASSURE:

It caters to the specific needs of every learner rather than using general resource.

  1. A — Analyze learners
  2. S — State standards & objectives
  3. S — Select strategies, technology, media & materials
  4. U — Utilize technology, media & materials
  5. R — Require learner participation
  6. E — Evaluate & revise

Theory about personality:

  1. The most appropriate sequence in the study of personality Personality trait, Personality type, Psychoanalytic.
  2. In the field of Personality Psychology, two main issues are
    1. Individual Differences
    2. Uniqueness

Carl Rogers:

  1. It is a nondirective, empathetic approach that empowers and motivates the client in the therapeutic process
  2. Non-directive = Person-centred humanistic approach dominated counselling
  3. According to Rogers, “Individuals have within themselves vast resources for self-understanding and for altering their self-concepts, basic attitudes, and self-directed behavior.
  4. So he proposed non-verbal teaching as significant method.

Albert  Ellis:

  1. REBT – Rationale Emotive Behavior Therapy –
    1. Cognitive behavior therapy – Helps client change irrational beliefs – combining behavioural strategies with underlying thoughts and emotions
    2. ‘Rapport Building’ will be emphasized in Rational counselling paradigm.
  2. Conclusion of Ellis – Becoming conscious of the problem was not enough to lead to actual changes in behavior.
    1. Assertion (A) : Behavior therapy helps people to respond to life situations in the way they would like to respond.
      1. R: Positive therapeutic relationship is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective behavior therapy.
      2. Both (A)and (R)are true, but(R)is not the correct explanation of (A).

Max Wertheimer:

  1. The study of sensation and perception suggests that the whole is greater than its sum of its parts.
  2. Learner is encouraged to discover the underlying nature of topic or problem.
  3. Gestalt Psychologist Max Wertheimer attempted to train children to think in a logical and systematic way where he used several figures such as
    1. Squares and rectangles
    2. Parallelogram
    3. Triangles

Kurt koffka:

  1. Extending gestalt theory to early developmental psychology,
  2. Development of perception, interpretation and learning in the growth of a mind by laws of organization.

Set-I (Theory of personality advocated by) Set-II (The main concept stressed)

  1. Psychoanalytic theory of Freud – Personality traits represent a cathexix of either ‘life urge’ or ‘death urge’.
  2. Psychological types of Jung – Traits represent two extreme points on a scale rather than two types
  3. Cattel’s theory of surface and source traits – Traits of personality are influenced by both environment and inheritance
  4. Allport’s theory of personal disposition –  Traits of personality are indicative of a neuro- psychic structure expressed through modes of behaviour.

Trait theories of personality – Allport:

  1. Functional Autonomy Theory of motivation – Cardinal, Central and secondary traits
    1. The idiographic approach to personality aims to identify patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion within an individual over time and contexts
    2. It permits deviation from the group.

Jung:

  1. Book – structure of Pscyche
  2. Three components of anima and the animus:
    1. Ego – Conscious mind
    2. Personal Unconscious
    3. Collective Unconscious
  3. In Jung’s frame of reference, the part of the mind that grows out of past experience of human being is designated as Collective unconsciousness.
Jung

Cattell:

  1. Theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence – Cattell, intelligence is neither completely monarchic, nor oligarchic nor anarchic.
    1. It is the relationship among ergs(Unit of energy), attitudes and sentiments forms the cattle’s dynamic lattice theory.
  2. Mean level of fluid intelligence (gf) is higher in young adults than older adults.
    1. But the Crystallized intelligence increases throughout life span
    2. Environments  that  influence  educational  and  cultural opportunities enhance crystallized intelligence.

Freud:

  1. Personality theorist – Freud – advocated Concepts of personality – Id, Ego and superego.
  2. In Freudian formulation, the level of consciousness in which memories of thoughts are readily accessible, is called Pre-conscious level.

Teacher Education:

Schulman:

  1. coined – pedagogical content knowledge
  2. Need for teachers to integrate their knowledge of subject matter with content specific pedagogical strategies – successful teaching outcomes

Deng and luke:

  1. The three concepts of knowledge proposed by Deng and Luke
    1. Disciplinary, practical, experiential

Habermas:

  1. Habermas is useful way to explore knowledge and its impact on student engagement
    1. Knowledge-constitutive Interest Theory
  2. Approach includes
    1. Emancipatory reflection.
    2. Modes of discovering knowledge.
    3. Hypothetical deduction.